Religion, ancestors and traditional practices

It appears that the notion of a ‘free and open society’ has also meant that all forms of religion or traditional practices can be exploited to send a particular advertising message. It might also be easier to conclude that bringing religion into advertising could be the easies method of touching the hearts and minds of people. Many companies and brands have tried, but they succeeded in annoying or offending the followers of the targeted religions or traditional practices. Advertisers that sneer at the hallowed positioning of religion and the belief in the ancestors among the majority of South Africans do so at their peril. It is a fact that religion and belief in ancestors rank very high in the lives of most black people.

A popular South African radio personality came under harsh criticism after suggesting that he had conducted an interview with ‘Jesus’. This took place during the launch in South Africa of the motion picture "The Passion of the Christ."  This assertion led to numerous complaints from listeners. The radio moved to suspend the radio personality for two days and this was also followed by an apology from management of the radio station and the individual concerned. The Station Manager of the radio station is quoted as having said: "As a responsible broadcaster we simply cannot endorse any content that unnecessarily undermines the religious beliefs of our listeners."

Nando’s South Africa and religious leaders of The South African Council of Churches (SACC) have had to issue joint statements exonerating the chicken franchise from an advertising campaign that was alleged to have been produced by Nando’s. The campaign was based on the ‘The Last Supper’ and carried the slogan; “Jesus has had his chips”. Companies that have attempted to use religion in their advertising and marketing campaigns have in many instances found this strategy to be costly. A company that used the line ‘Jesus rules’ as part of its campaign, had to withdraw the campaign from billboards and other media. The depiction of the Hindu holy cow on an advertising campaign of a well-known internet company had to be promptly withdrawn and apologies made, after numerous complaints from the Hindu community.   

Religion and its place in the lives people

There exists within all communities a very deep sense of religion and belief that there is a greater being or creator that has the absolute powers to shape and determine man’s destiny. However, it is also evident that in some cultures this creator or heavenly figure works and directs the course of the people and the world with assistance of other forces that have assumed the status of what could be referred to as gods or ancestors or angles. The area most fascinating when travelling through the lengths and breadths of South Africa and listening to all descriptions of religion and God is the various names used to refer to this omnipotent being and the important role this plays in the lives of people. There is no doubt that in every culture there is recognition of a single God and that religion seems to have been a part of peoples’ lives long before the missionaries and explorers set foot within African communities. The elderly within the isiZulu speaking people would refer to God as uMvelingqangi and Mvelinchanti in isiSwati, loosely translated to mean, the first one or the one that came first or the one that is mightier than all. The isiZulu word commonly used today is uNkulunkulu. The Basotho use the word Tlatlamatjholo, the God of the ancestors, and this name has been changed to Molimo, the one who is above. There is a belief amongst the elderly people of Basotho that white missionaries resisted to accept the relationship that God has with the ancestors and this led to the missionaries introducing new words to replace existing descriptors. The isiXhosa speaking people speak of uQamata, the one referred to in modern times as uThixo. The Bapedi word for God is Kgobe, and Modimo is a word that is now commonly used.           

Religion and the worship of ancestors form a central and important part of the lives of the various communities of South Africa. The simultaneous or parallel worship of ancestors and God is something that happens in many black African households. Some African people believe that God can be communicated with effectively via the ancestors, whilst others see the worship of ancestors as paganism and therefore unchristian. In the many communities that hold the former view, the prayer to ancestors and God is treated as one or one is the way to the other. It takes a good ear to work out which divine powers are called upon. The existence of the strong relationship religion and the ancestors have in the lives of black African people can be noticed during the performances of the amahubo, clan songs of the isiZulu speaking people. The reference to God and abaphantsi, those who have passed on and joined the world of the ancestors, is often made. These dual and in some places multiple relationships between God and ancestors can be observed in all black African communities. For example, the Bapedi refer to Kgobeane, the son of Kgobe. In the Bapedi culture, it is the ancestors who will on their behalf communicate with Kgobeane and Kgobe. The uMvelingqangi of the isiZulu speaking people is said to have ‘children’ who would assist Him in the role of caring for His people. Nomhloyi and Nonmkhubulwane are known to be the ‘children’ of God and would carry out various responsibilities to assist and care for the people. Yet again the ancestors play a pivotal role in communicating with uMvelingqangi and His son and daughter.  

Whilst many people in the rural and urban communities of South Africa see themselves as Christians and yet also find the time to communicate and recognise their ancestors, a number of churches have been very vocal in their condemnation of the people who worship and recognise ancestors as part of their life. Many of the churches, especially the new charismatic churches, have bluntly referred to the worship of ancestors as paganism and irrelevant in the lives of the people and this intolerance are less experienced in more mature churches. The levels of tolerance and acceptance or perhaps silence on the issue from the older and more established churches continue to allow their members to relate to their ancestors. Most churches including those that are tolerant of ancestors downplay the role of sangomas and traditional healers. 

I have often received calls from members of families that I have visited, offering to pray for me and wish me a safe journey. I remember travelling from Dwaleni to Matsulu, both places in Mpumalanga and receiving a call from Gogo Mathebula just before midnight. All gogo wanted to do was pray for me on the phone. I felt much moved by the call. This made me realize how beautiful human beings were.

One of the hallmarks of religion is a belief in supernatural beings and forces. When attempting to control by religious means what cannot be controlled in other ways, humans turn to prayer, sacrifice, and other religious rituals.¹ According to Dr. Haviland, a world renowned anthropologist, this presupposes a world of supernatural beings who have an interest in human affairs and to whom people may turn to for aid. There are a number of churches, especially within what is referred to as the African Initiated Churches that believe that the leader of the church and in many of these cases the bishop, has the powers to be mediator and healer. The leader of the church or the designated bishop is viewed as the mediator between God and the other church members, in some cases the communities living in the vicinity of the church. The leader of the church or bishop is also often bestowed with the supernatural powers and the ability to heal through his or her faith. It often happens that senior members of the congregation are selected, by the powers bestowed to them by God, to become prophets that have the power to use the Holy Spirit to heal and create the connection between members of the church and the ancestors.

There are many other different materials, plants and medicinal concoctions that are used for healing and blessing members of churches and that of the communities. Holy water, ash from special plants and trees, strings or cords created out of cloths and animal skin and other substances made out of fat from certain animals are used for healing.

Religion and hope in communities

God or the ancestors or both are usually called upon during challenging and difficult times. Prayer, whether directed at God or the ancestors, is used to call for divine intervention, support and at times for thanks giving. This can also be a source of hope for many people that battle on a day-to-day basis to make ends meet. It is also a source of encouragement to try harder and wish for a better tomorrow and trust that tomorrow will be better than today. The Vhavenda people would say, u nembelela ha shamba a si u wa halo, meaning that it is advisable to keep hope alive and strong because some day things will be better. Shamba is a fruit that hangs loosely on a twig as if it is going to fall some time soon and those that have observed this fruit know that at times the storm and strong winds have not been able to drop this fruit from the tree.

Religion and race

Christianity has over the years permeated the lives of most South Africans. The Anglican, Methodist, Roman Catholic, Dutch Reformed churches appear to be the most prevalent in all communities of South Africa. The Zion Christian Church, ZCC symbolised by the star or dove, has a large a membership. There are many other churches in the black African communities such as the Apostolic, Presbyterian, and African Zion, commonly referred to in the townships as Amazion churches. The spread or presence of some of the churches appears to be influenced by race or language or the cultural group one is part of. For example, the Dutch Reformed Churches are predominantly found in Afrikaans speaking communities. The existence of a number of Synagogues in an area will mostly likely give one a sense of the presence of a large number of Jewish people in a given community. The mosques are found in areas where the Muslim community run businesses or live. Temples are found in Hindu communities. It said that more than 1 billion people around the world practise Hinduism, with the 950 million thereof living in the Indian subcontinent, the birthplace of Hinduism.²    

Churches such as the Zionists, African Methodist, African Congregational, African Apostolic and others were formed as a reaction to the perceived lack of transformation and ‘guarded paternalism’ by missionaries. The early migrant experience gave rise to a distinctive religious expression, which has been called the Zionist. It radiated from the industrial cities into the countryside through the migrant networks, but its strongest social support is still within the urban working class.³ The establishment of these changes did not change much in terms of what they preach and the ways services were conducted, it was merely a reaction against what was perceived as discrimination and the unwillingness of the missionaries to fully accept black Africans as full members of the churches with all the rights accorded to White members and the slow pays of the missionaries in ordaining black African pastors. However, common characteristics amongst the Zionist churches were there need to offer support to those that have left their rural homes in the concrete jungles of the cities and provide the assurance their faith and religious practices would guarantee the congregants spiritual peace and freedom and the church would also provide healing for those that have faith.

While it is difficult to generalise across such a diverse range of churches, the Zionist phenomenon can be reasonably comprehended as a refinement of Christianity in relation to African experience. In effect, Zionism harnesses the distilled spiritual energy of Christianity to respond to modern African needs and channels it through African categories of thought and action, though without denuding it entirely of Christian categories.⁴ In the townships and rural communities of South Africa, these churches are commonly referred to as Amazayoni or Masione or Izayoni or Mapostoli. They are usually very distinctive with the uniforms and wear their uniforms with pride. The members of the Lekganyane churches, also known as the ZCC, Zion Christian Church, can be seen in thick khaki uniforms and white specially made shoes for men and the women can be seen in green, blue and yellow uniforms. The members of the Shembe church cannot be mistaken for any other church, because of the uniform that is unique to this church. It would not be the complete picture if one looked at these churches without looking to their origin and the membership figures. There are two major churches that are referred to as the ZCC and have their origin in South African in black African communities; their led by Bishops Engenas Lekganyane and Barnabas Lekganyane, the grandsons of the founder of the church, Bishop Engenas Lekganyane. It is believed that the establishment of the church followed a revelation from God to the founder of the church, Bishop Engenas Lekganyane. When the church split after the death of Bishop Engenas in1948, two congregations were born, one symbolised by the Star of David and the other by a dove and the congregations were named Zion Christian Church and Saint Engenas Zion Christian Church respectively. Both congregations have their headquarters at Moria, Zion City, a kilometre or two away from each other. The congregations are estimated to have between four to six million members each throughout Africa.     

A prayer for everything

The practice of praying before meals is common in many homes of South Africa, be it Muslim, Hindu or Christian homes. There is a prayer in the morning before breakfast is served, a prayer requesting God to project the family during the day at school and work, a prayer for the lunch meal and there is a prayer in the evening before people have their supper and there is a prayer before people get into bed to rest after a busy and challenging day. Members of households point to the fact that they have never stopped praying, even as they experience tension or happiness in the workplace, there is always a reason to pray.  They also mention that the majority of their prayers are private and silent, said when walking to the taxi or bus or train station. Commuters spend considerable time praying and singing hymns as they travel in the busses, trains and taxis.

There are numerous other opportunities to hear prayers in households. A common occurrence for prayer takes place when a guest is being welcomed to the household and prayer may also be repeated when that guest leaves the household. It is also possible, through the prayer to determine the thoughts in the mind of the person saying the prayer. The bedtime prayer would usually give an indication of the thoughts the household has about their visitor. As much as a visitor or guest is treated as a member of the family, in the prayer, one is treated as separate from members of the household. It would be a common occurrence to hear the prayer go as follows: “God bless this family and bless Louis too; protect him and also keep us safe.” The prayers are said in the indigenous languages spoken in the households.

I attended a number of church and religious events. The interpretation of the bible is often open to discussion and debate. The views of the majority that are sanctioned by the pastor/priest are usually adopted as correct.

The spread of religion

Historical material makes reference to various ways, some not so pleasant, that were used to spread religion. A search through the various writings and documentation on the spread of religion is very intense and in many areas exist conflicting points of view on how religion managed to travel and be a part of life of many people of the world. However, an extract from the website called Building World History, which sounds more plausible, contains the following:  The spread of Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam introduced new beliefs and practices to a wide variety of peoples. These beliefs and practices were often quite different from indigenous religions. In addition, indigenous beliefs and practices often changed the new religions as they adapted to local conditions. These changes frequently resulted in the development of different sects within the new religions.⁵

Religion continues to be a significant social force in South Africa. Virtually the entire population professes some kind of faith, and the country has an exceptionally rich diversity of religions. But despite these factors, much of this important phenomenon remains little known and poorly understood, unlike other aspects of South African history and society, such as the political. Certain parts of it have received a great deal of attention from scholars, especially where Christianity is concerned, but this does not meet the pressing need for a better grasp of the full range of South Africa’s faiths and their histories, and for a more critical interpretation of Christianity in South Africa, written in a way that does not reflect the purposes and interpretations of any single author.⁶

There is no doubt that many people in rural and urban communities of South Africa have experienced the religion that talks about the need to look after and support the poor and the sick. Interactions with community members reveal that inner peace has been found by many in churches and religions that they practice. It is unfortunate that the other faiths and forms of Christianity in the country, mainly those practiced or followed by black African people including Islam and Hinduism, have not received the type of support from broadcasters and media in general, like the awareness and promotion the mainstream Christianity groups seem to have enjoyed, even during the pinnacle of racial segregation and the marginalisation of racial groups that were not classified as White.    

A religion with daily or weekly access to publicly funded television or the nation’s classrooms can make its voice heard and its presence felt much more effectively than religions to which these things have always been denied.⁷ What is a marvel to observe is that these seemingly marginalised faiths and religions have not taken a backseat and entered a state of continuous moaning and disgruntlement, they went into the streets, taxi ranks, into trains and looked for places where many people gathered for whatever reason and spread their faiths and religions. When access to facilities where denied or not made available, they went into the open fields, school rooms and recreational parks to congregate, heal, support and offer spiritual upliftment to the people. There are people from various churches that take time to visit households, hospitals, prisons and other places where people can be found, to spread the word of God and talk about what Jesus’ time in this world was about. The ringing of a small handheld bell, the clapping of hands and small padded cushions and the melodious voices make this activity of worship interesting to observe or participate in.

It is strange and perhaps unfortunate that a number of South African radio and television commercials have used church settings and gospel music that are predominantly influenced by American or Afro-American churches, in a country that is rich with unique forms of churches and gospel songs. The high-energy movements and dance, including the gospel songs that are sung in Afro-American churches are not similar to movements and songs found in the majority of black African churches. The singing in Afro-American churches, notably the Pentecostal Churches, which may merge into ecstatic dance, is usually accompanied by the piano or organ, often with handclapping, tambourines, and electric guitars.⁸ Mahalia Jackson, William Fischer and Rosetta Tharpe, amongst others, were the notable singers that spread this type of gospel music through American states and worldwide. There is a rich tapestry of church and gospel music cultural heritage in South Africa that should be informing the church settings and gospel music used in television, radio and print advertising.          

On Saturdays and Sundays, many members of households wake up and tune into gospel programmes and sermons that are broadcast in the mornings on radio and television. Stepping into the streets, one will encounter a number of people walking to their respective churches with a hymnbook and bible clutched in their hands or placed under their armpits. The uniforms that many wear to church on a Sunday will provide an indication of the church one belongs to. Where there is no uniform worn, the cleanliness and neatness portrayed by such people becomes the sign of one looking forward to a morning in church.

The spread of religion in South Africa cannot be observed without looking at the rate of growth of the ZCC. Based on the census figures of 1991, 9.7% of the people who were willing to give information on their religious membership said that they were members of the ZCC. It is interesting to note that some research information state that the ZCC experienced between 200% and 300% growth rate in the period from 1970 and 1982. It has to be said that in the many communities where the ZCC exists, the number of people attending worship in those communities would be very large. Roads are often congested with members and their vehicles trying to find space to move and park in the usually overcrowded communities.     

Giving to the church

It is common practice for congregants to place coins or notes on plates and other containers and move these through the pews as members place their contribution to the church. Many seem not to have a clear indication of where the money is going to and how the church will use it. They appear to be content that it is a donation to God. Some churches have chosen to be very clear about the amount each member should contribute, others have kept the common approach that says “each according to their means” and that members can contribute what members can afford. Followers in some religious groups and churches in many communities accept the practice of paying 5% or 10% of one’s salary as tithe or offerings to their respective churches. These contributions seem to have enabled these churches to build huge and attractive places of worship and made life easier for charity organisations that have benefited from the generosity of these givers. However, some members of the charismatic and modern churches lament the fact that some leaders of their churches have selected to live a life of extravagance, driving the latest sports cars, dining and socialising with celebrities and politicians and living in posh suburbs.

The controversies around tithing have been debated in a number of forums in the various communities, without a common conclusion reached regarding the amount to be contributed to the church or how that money should be used. But what is clear is that it is also easy to find a verse in the bible that supports whatever approach a particular church has around the amount members should contribute to the church.

Gogo Gumede, from Umlazi in KwaZulu-Natal on explaining to her grandchildren about tithes and donations to the church; she quotes a verse from 2 Corinthians 9:7, which reads “Each man should give what he has decided in his heart to give, not reluctantly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver”. She went on to encourage her grandchildren to attend church even when they do not have money to donate to the church. She also advices them not donate to the church the same money that they could have bought bread to eat before they went to sleep. She concluded by saying that there are other ways of assisting the church and its community services, even when they do not have a cent to place on the plate.

Living in different communities throughout the country will in the majority of cases reveal that most churches have dedicated themselves to serving the people of God and supporting those that are in need. There is no pressure on the congregants to donate to the church. There is no pastor that looks over the shoulders of those making donation to see how much are they contributing, if any thing. The following line appears on the documents of the St. Mary of Grace Independent Catholic Church: The Augustinians of the Immaculate Heart receive no salary or funding from any source other than donations.  The kindness and generosity of our benefactors make it possible for us to serve the people of God! Another message reads: Every gift, no matter how small, allows us to serve more of God's people.  Please consider sharing with us whatever you can, and even if you are unable to make a financial gift, please remember us in your prayers, the greatest gift of all.

There are churches that are looking at receiving donations via credit cards, debit orders and bank electronic transfers. Concern has being raised by various social activists that this move by the churches will result in more people being trapped in debt. There is also concern that the need to give to the church, even if it is via credit, will surpass the need to provide food, pay for rates and taxes and for municipal services.

The choice of church by households

There are many churches, with differing emphasis on the religions, music, prayers and hymns songs. This has given ample opportunities to members of households to choose their own preferred churches to attend. It is expected in most cases that families will select to belong and attend the same church. This also ensures that the priest, church elders and congregants are introduced to families that attend the same church. However, it appears that some families do accept it when members of household chose to be part of the church that is not traditionally the church attended by the parents. Younger members of households have found the new charismatic and modern churches more interesting.

Calling on God and ancestors

Sangomas and traditional healers are seen as playing an important role in the general well being of people, including Christians. There is an understanding that God created the trees and plants so that these can be used to heal people. Some believe that the power to heal is a gift from God, others view the rituals carried out by Sangomas as paganism. The bible is often a source of reference for debate around these issues. There is a stronger hold to customs and the belief in ancestors in both rural and urban communities. The ritual of slaughtering livestock as a form of thanksgiving to the ancestors is practiced extensively.  

The Mozambican refugees that have been settled in a village called Humulani, in Phalaborwa in Mpumalanga, build miniature huts on their properties or homesteads to house the spirit of their ancestors. The belief is that the housing of the ancestors in close proximity ensures security and protection for the household. At given traditional ceremonies, food gets prepared and placed in the huts that house the spirit of the ancestors. The understanding is that food has to be shared with the ancestors. This ensures that the ancestors look upon the family, provide security and increases the chances for good fortunes. The miniature hut wherein the ancestors are supposed to live in or at least served food in.

It is common practice for God and the ancestors to be “approached” or called upon in celebrations or thanksgiving, ukubonga in isiZulu. It is also expected that the above forces will be called upon during times of difficulty or misgiving, to influence the future in a positive manner. The media fracas created by the SPCA, Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, in its response to the slaughtering of a bull with a spear as part of the cleansing ceremony of Mr. Tony Yengeni, the former ANC chief whip, after he was released from prison was a clear indication of the type of cultural insensitivities that can be unleashed when people and organisations select the route of totally disregarding behaviours that are influenced by cultural and traditional practices. The SPCA went on to support its argument that Mr. Yengeni should be criminally charged by referring to the Animal Protection Act. Mr. Jody Kollapen from the South African Human Rights Commission believed that: “The simplistic approach cannot take place in matters like these”. He went on to say that the incident: “Goes to the very heart of how people define themselves and how we construct our identity.”      

The words Mawetu and Camagu are common to the Xhosa people throughout the Eastern Cape. The word Mawetu, a summoning of the ancestors, meaning our ancestors, is used when a goat or sheep or bull is to be sacrificed as a call out to the ancestors that their powers and support are requested to be part of this ceremony and celebration. The word Camagu, is uttered as an appreciation of the role of the ancestors, and would normally be loudly repeated by the other people in the environment. It has to be noted that in the different parts of the Eastern and Western Cape, the different clans and communities within the Xhosa people may choose to use other forms of acknowledgment and communication with the ancestors. A thorough understanding and study would have to be carried out to perfectly express a way of life of a people and the manner in which that way of life guides or influences those behaviours on a daily basis. 

Black African people have largely associated the existence of ancestors with harmony and peace. But it is also accepted that ancestors are sensitive enough to be angered, and their wrath is usually devastating and it comes at times when it is least expected. Ancestors are known to indirectly severely punish, by removing that protection, those that behave and conduct themselves in ways that are contrary to defined social order or the spirit of the clan or ancestry of a particular community or household. It is expected that harmony and respect should prevail amongst offsprings and their parents and grandparents, even in cases where the offsprings have become adults that live in their own homes. It is understood that any person that has forsaken his or her parents and the home from which he or she was born, is likely to experience upheaval and misfortune in life, until such time that good, harmony and order can be restored. The restoration of good, harmony and order would normally take the form of sacrificing an animal, making peace with the parents and asking for forgiveness from the ancestors. It is often ideal to make peace with the parents while they are still alive, but even when they have passed on, the rituals would have to be undertaken to restore that peace and order.      

The story of Nongqawuse is well recorded in both the lives of the Xhosa nation and their history. It is said that in the years preceding and during 1856 were the most difficult and challenging for the Xhosa nation. The battles with the British and Boers had robbed the Xhosa people of their land and other possessions. Disease and drought attacked their crop and cattle. It is during such hard times that black African people would look to their ancestors for protection, support and guidance. Nongqawuse, niece of a local prophet, emerged as the bearer of hope and salvation for the Xhosa nation. Nongqawuse informed the elders and leaders that she has received a message from the ancestors that the Xhosa nation should destroy all their cattle and burn their crops. The young prophetess claimed that when all this is done the ancestors of the Xhosa nation would provide them with more healthier and stronger cattle, their crops will grow and provide them with more food and their ancestors would rise and drive the whites into the sea. It is said that the Xhosa nation was advised to heed the prophecy and destroy all their cattle, crops and food-stocks, which they obliged. It has to be noted that some elders and community leaders in the various villages of the Eastern Cape dispute the factual details of this story. However, there is a common thread that points to the fact that the period mentioned was the most catastrophic in the life of the Xhosa nation and something just went wrong during that time. It is recorded that thousands of Xhosa people starved and perished. The irony of this story is that those that managed to survive found themselves having to travel to the lands occupied by the whites and work for them.        

  

The days of worship

Church days are on Wednesdays, Saturdays and Sundays, depending on the church one belongs to. Big and “successful” churches have created special times or extra time to allow members who might not have had the time and the space to attend the service at the usual times.

Special days such as Christmas Day, Good Friday, Easter and New Years Day have seen large numbers of people going to churches, especially when these days fall on a Sunday. The regular and devoted churchgoers would make a special effort to also be at church during these special days, but these days also present that opportunity for those that seldom go to church to make a special effort of attending church. It is also the moment when parents and spouses are less tolerant of members of their families that are not attending church regularly. The excuse not to attend is less appreciated by many households, especially during these special days. Household members that seldom go to church are encouraged to go to church and for once in a year pray for themselves.

The fact that Easter is a word, according to English historians such Bede, associated with the goddess of spring, Oestre, might be irrelevant for marketers and advertisers since their targeted audiences would have placed very little importance to this fact, if any. What is important for marketers and advertisers is the fact that many people from the diverse cultural groups of South Africa observe these special days in particular ways. 

Members of the Zion Christian Church travel to Moria during Easter, the month of September and over Christmas for their religious celebrations.

The African Language Radio Stations, ALS, have found effective ways of bringing to their listeners their favoured and popular religious and gospel programmes during these special days and on Sundays. The programmes would generally be comprised of church services, religious topics and gospel music. The listeners are often provided with the opportunity to call in and contribute to the topics that are under discussion or request that special gospel song.

   

Sangomas and traditional healers

There is a belief within the various black African communities that certain individuals in society will be selected by some divine and supernatural forces, usually the ancestors, to be bestowed with powers to heal, guide or control or even influence good or evil. They are also provided with powers to find missing items such cars and other material possessions, including people and livestock.

Being in direct communication with the ancestors, the diviner has a clearer vision of what the ancestors require of the living. She or he is equipped to clarify the meanings of dreams by means of which ancestors imperfectly communicate with the living; she can diagnose the cause of misfortune, determine in what measure it has its origin in the ancestral relationship or in disturbed living relationships expressed as sorcery or witchcraft, and in each case indicate the particular relationship concerned.⁹

   

There are fine distinctions between the roles performed by Sangomas and traditional healers. For example, in the culture of the Zulu people, the Sangomas, Izangoma in IsiZulu, are gifted with the powers to throw shells, bones and twigs from selected plants and trees and be able to heal or provide medicine for healing or simply use their spiritual powers. The traditional healers, Izinyanga zokwelapha noma zokubhula, use plants and animal extracts to formulate medicine for healing and curing the soul or various ailments. The other task of the Izinyanga zokubhula is that of spiritually confronting witches and other forces of evil.

The divine school of Sangomas and traditional healers

Sangomas are called into the profession through some life-threatening experience that they will have before they accept the fact that these signs point to a calling from some divine forces. Stories are abound that the initiates, men or women, would have had severe ailments that no medical doctor or Sangoma or traditional healer could provide medicine for or heal. The only remedy or cure or healing would in most times be found in the initiates accepting that they have to be amathwasa, those undergoing training to be Sangomas. Much of this training is steeped in secrecy, since that information is viewed as being personal between the person conducting the training and his or her ancestors. Sangomas are only willing to provide information on what is likely to be observed by ordinary members of the community during times when rituals are performed. The duration of training to be a Sangoma can take between two to three years, depending on the region or community. The word derived from thwasa, ithwasana is largely also used in the townships of Soweto, Alexandra, Vosloorus, Daveyton and others that are located in the Gauteng province to refer to someone regarded or viewed by peers to be ‘wet behind the ears’ or a novice. If someone says in isiZulu that you are an ithwasana, it simply means that you are viewed as not being well-versed about the matter at hand or you cannot be trusted with an important task. This means that when car highjackers or cash-in-transit gangs go out to do their evil deeds, they would not invite their peers whom they regard as amathwasana, the ones that still have to complete their training.    

It is known that muti will be prepared in containers bellowing with steam, the initiate will pledge allegiance to the ancestors, an animal will be sacrificed and the blood of the sacrificed animal be used to smear all over the trainee. An animal, preferably a goat, will be sacrificed again at the end of the training. The sacrifice of this particular goat is utilised to call upon the ancestors to protect the initiate and bestow him or her with more divine power.       

The playing of drums, dancing and the burning of various herbs including imphepho are part of the rituals performed in the graduation of the initiate. The dance, which eventually leads into a form of a trance and the specific rhythmic beating of the drums, are part of the ways in which the Sangomas offers himself/herself to the total control and guidance of the ancestors.  

Sangomas, traditional healers and their prowess

In South Africa, more so in black African communities, some Sangomas and traditional healers have gained the favour that they are very good at what they do and can perform miracles. Even to those black African people that are sceptical, it makes sense to simply comply and engage the services of Sangomas and traditional healers, in case they do have these powers. Very few black African ceremonies, celebrations and rituals take place without the involvement of Sangomas and traditional healers. They have been a feature at many political rallies, cleansing ceremonies and other social events.

A number of black African communities that believe that their communities are troubled would often call on the services of Sangomas and traditional healers to provide a sense of harmony and order in the community. Even criminals seem to believe that they can call on the services of these divine beings to commit crime and not be caught. It is a known fact that many bank robbers have entered banks and attempted to rob them with the understanding that they will not be seen or arrested because they are protected by the powers of a particular Sangoma. 

       

Sangomas and traditional healers conduct a thriving trade in the urban and rural areas of South African. Their services usually come at a cost. For example the City of Johannesburg has a place known as Mai Mai, which is described by many as the biggest muti market in Africa. A large variety of traditional herbs and medicines can be found at Mai Mai, including body parts of various wild animals. In Embalenhle, in Witbank, there is a muti market that is hyped with muti activity that one can initially mistake it to be a popular vegetable market. All forms of herbs and muti ingredients can be purchased from this market, including live chickens or goats. 

Like any other profession, there are unscrupulous and dishonest Sangomas and traditional healers functioning as qualified practitioners, as one would find in the western medical fields. The unfortunate part of this scenario is that the Sangomas’ and traditional healers’ profession is not organised in ways that will stamp out the bogus practitioners and accredit those that are duly qualified. It is encouraging to see that the National Department of Health of South Africa is working on ways of regulating the Sangomas and traditional healers’ profession or at least setting up guidelines. The issue of over-pricing of services by some Sangomas and traditional healers is another bone of contention. Patients in the various provinces of South Africa have reported numerous malpractices.

The Med-Lemon television commercial that shows what it supposed to be a traditional healer consulting with a patient.  The patient says the following words to the traditional healer: “Sometimes cold, sometimes hot”. The traditional healer moves into the room where he keeps his medicine. He then decants Med-Lemon into boiling water in a calabash. He walks out of the “medicine room” and dispensing it to the patient suffering from a cold or flu. With great relief the patient leaves the traditional healer’s consulting rooms. When the camera zooms out of the house to provide an aerial view of the house, there is a long queue of people waiting to be healed by this favourite traditional healer. This is a commercial that managed to bring out the wrath of many traditional healers and other people that felt that this commercial was “disparaging”, “demeaning” and made a “mockery” of African culture and traditions.

It can be said that at a very superficial level the commercial is a very creative and therefore people can find the lighter side of the commercial and still accept that Med-Lemon is a fine and effective product to use when one is suffering from a gold or flue. However, advertising does not function out of a vacuum. As long as advertising and its purveyors purport to understand their target audiences and have the knowledge to communicate given messages, it has to be accepted that the portrayal of such people and their lives must be correct and where humour is brought in, it must be acceptable to the targeted audiences. It is also a fact to consider that unfortunately South Africa as a country and its people are not yet “normalised”, because the country and its people emerge out of a very barbaric, brutal and painful system of apartheid. Some people are likely to find certain portrayal of the values they hold dear to be offensive and at times qualified as racist and others might take the view that we should get over it and find the maturity to see the humour in these portrayals and the messages. Unfortunately, it is not the role of brands to be defiant and be confrontational about these issues, but to communicate in a manner that is effective and relevant. This means that brands or products and their marketing and advertising personnel must know these sensitivities to avoid unnecessary ill-feelings and miscommunication. If all issues have been considered, agencies and their clients will find excitement in pushing the envelope and searching for engaging advertising messages.             

 

The sacrifice of animals and the use plants medicine

The conducting of the various rituals and services of the Sangomas or traditional healers usually involves the sacrificing of an animal. The animals sacrificed are usually chickens, goats, sheep or cattle, depending on what is deemed to be appropriate by the divine healer consulted. Depending of the ritual to be performed and the reasons for consulting a Sangomas or traditional healer, the chicken may be black or white. The gender of the sheep or goat to be sacrificed can have material significance in the performance of the ritual. The gallbladder, inyongo, taken from the sacrificed animal plays a very important role in the life of the Sangomas and it is usually emptied and placed on the head of the Sangomas and tied to the hair. The emptied gallbladder can also be placed on the head of the person receiving the healing or someone celebrating a special occasion such as a wedding or coming of age.

Nature and the products that it provides play a very important role in the lives of black African people. The roots, stems, leave and fruits of various plants provide medicinal properties for Sangomas and traditional healers. The need to drive evil spirits away and to protect against misfortune means that Sangomas and traditional healers have to mix medicines and offer these two those in need. These roots, stems, leaves and the fruits of certain plants or herbs can be used to improve the chances of one finding love, increase possibilities of bearing a child, provide one with the power to be feared by people and especially by one’s enemies, protect one’s property against thieves and those that do not mean well. There are medicines or herbs that can be used to ensure that one’s partner remains faithful and never finds the need to be attracted to someone else. This concoction of herbs is known in some communities as, bheka mina kuphela, loosely translated to mean, only look at me and do not be attracted to other possible partners. Hamba uzobuya, go and you will come back, is normally used by shopkeepers and businesses that rely on customers coming to purchase the goods and services that are being traded, to ensure that the customers will return in the future to buy something else.         

The role of Sangomas in society

It is a futile exercise to consider how Sangomas or traditional healers can be discredited to a point where no one views them as important or relevant. The reality in South Africa is that the vast majority of the black African people view Sangomas or traditional healers as the first or only points of contact when they need divine intervention or the healing of one ailment or the other. Statistics have it that about 75% to 85% of the black African people consult Sangomas and traditional healers. 

This means that any health related campaign or strategy from the health department and other health products that are produced by companies will not succeed unless a plan is in place that brings into the fold the strength and networks of the Sangomas and traditional healers. In the most basic terms it means that a comprehensive HIV and AIDS strategy has to involve the understanding of the functioning of and the relationship Sangomas and traditional healers have with the people. It might help crime fighting agents and security advisors of institutions like banks to consult Sangomas and traditional healers to look at how they manage to build this type of courage or even provide invincibility for robbers and cash-in-transit heist gangs.        

The church and its role within communities

The church is seen in many communities as being custodian of good moral values and standing. The church has in a number of communities in South Africa filled the gaps where there is an absence of institutions such as the monarchy, chieftaincy or tribal authority. Members of these communities, in the absence of the above institutions, continuously look to the church for guidance and opinion on matters that place moral challenges in their lives. The church has closely aligned itself with the ways of life of members of these communities. For example, as part of creating entertainment for the members of communities, churches often organise cultural music and dance activities. While it is common to have gospel music sung at these cultural events, acceptance of traditional and other music genres exists.

A close working relationship is also found between the churches and the law enforcement authorities. The police are known to be consulting with churches and other organisations on an ongoing basis, search for guidance, input and assistance in fighting and eradicating crime in the communities where these churches are located in. The church remains a relevant, reliable and trusted channel to communicate with communities and to reach the broader society. The congregations have the amazing ability of spreading messages and information into communities. Congregants have the ability to spread whatever message, in the busses, taxis and trains as they travel to work or into town for shopping and to pay accounts. They also belong to various community groups and structures that also have links with other groups in other parts of the country. This means that a message that needs to be communicated to a large and diverse audience can be ignited when sent from the churches. It is this type of messages that have to be spread that would need to be looked into, to ensure that the church does not find itself playing a role of dispersing messages that are contrary and not in the interest of the communities the churches serve. The question might then be: Can the church be involved in the selling and promoting of the Coca Cola brand? Maybe not in the 21^st century, but the future and the make up of society then and its value system could conclude differently.

The church also played an important and visible role in the struggle against apartheid and the related human sufferings. It is documented that some churches found religious grounds to support the oppressive and brutal apartheid state of the South Africa of the dark ages. The church continued to offer spiritual comfort to communities and the hope that South Africa will be free. Political activities that feared for their lives and those that languished in the jails of apartheid South Africa looked to the church for support and spiritual guidance. Clerics like Dr. Allan Boesak, Dr. Beyers Naude, the Reverend Dr. Frank Chikane, Reverend Dr. Molefe Tsele, Emeritus Archbishop Desmond Tutu, to name a few, would frequently be found preaching against state sanctioned political murders and tortures carried out against political activist and those suspected to be members of banned political organisations. These clerics would often be found at political rallies calling for peaceful demonstrations and conducting sermons at funerals of political activists and those murdered by the security police and by members of other political organisations. It is interesting to note that Dr. Allan Boesak and Dr. Beyers Naude both emerged from the South African Dutch Reformed Church, a church known to have preached and found religious justification for the system of apartheid, especially in the Afrikaner communities. Dr. Beyers Naude’s interaction with other clerics, especially through the World Council of Churches, and the massacre of 69 black South Africans made him turn against the apartheid principles that were supported by his church and also resigned from the Broederbond, brotherhood. The Broederbond or League of Brothers was a powerful Afrikaner male secret society which played a dominant role in apartheid South Africa.¹⁰ Dr. Allan Boesak’s political role and leader of the oppressed and marginalised people went on to become patron of the United Democratic Front, UDF. The UDF was launched in August 1983 essentially as a front of community and sectoral social movements to oppose the apartheid regime's attempt to co-opt the Coloured and Indian communities into a tricameral parliamentary dispensation. Initially, the UDF was meant to be little more than the sum of its affiliated parts. But the vacuum of above-board, nation-wide resistance politics in the still repressive early 1980s, quickly propelled the UDF into becoming more than this.¹¹

                      

It was important for these communities to have their clerics singing the freedom songs together with them and this went a long way in assuring members of these communities that, if God is with them nothing will stop the attainment of a free and democratic South Africa. If the clerics could be affected by the teargas that was fired by the security police, then it meant that this struggle was just and worth pursuing to the ultimate achievement of the emancipation of the oppressed and exploited masses of the people of South Africa.

Without sounding disrespectful to the important role churches play in the lives of people in various communities, it has to be said that some churches have taken total control over the lives of their members. There are churches that have clear rules over smoking, the taking of alcohol, involvement in politics, the types of food and entertainment members are allowed to engage in. For example, the ZCC forbids its members from taking alcohol, sexual promiscuity, eating pork, smoking and engaging in any form of violence. In many communities of South Africa, the wearing of the Star of David and the Saint Engenas dove by members of this church would immediately mean that the person can be trusted and that they most likely be the most kindest of people. The reality is that this view can be experienced and confirmed when one has the opportunity to relate and engage with members of these churches.

Members of the New Christianity Zion church found in the rural and urban communities of South Africa hold the view that every member of the church must have their church uniform, in which the member would be buried in when their last day on earth arrives. Every member has a set of uniform that he or she keeps, which will be used to dress him or her up when they have to be prepared for burial after the death. The uniform is called the “staff dress” and usually excludes the woollen belt that is commonly used with the usual uniform used by members of this church.

Younger members of the Zionist churches usually find it a challenge to wear their uniform, more so within communities that have fellow young people that look down on their counterparts that are members of these churches. As a result, in some places it might be common to have these younger members of these churches carrying their uniforms in bags and wear the uniforms when they reach their church premises. It has to be noted that whilst these young members might believe that being members of these churches fulfils their lives and enhances their relationship with God, the pressure emanating from their counterparts in the communities can be unbearable and therefore eventually affects their behaviour and the relationship they have with their chosen church and their identity with the church that is normally expressed on the basis of the uniform that is worn by the members.     

In the rural and urban communities of South Africa, some churches have gained favour with the communities, especially from the members of these churches, for reasons that they have the ability and the know-how to heal and provide extended life to their members, and others are viewed by community members as being the true representatives of the house of God on earth. Healing and the message from the ancestors seem to be main drivers that lead people to the ZCC church. Many people speak of having gone to the church seeking healing and have since never stopped being members of this church and there are those that refer to some communications or revelations from the ancestors that have led them to the ZCC church. Sorcery and the need to be protected from such evil continue to encourage many people to visit or be members of the ZCC church. For some people, the cities and the urban communities of South Africa can be “concrete jungles” and “houses of the devil” where people are believed to be capable of doing anything to secure and protect the jobs that they have. There are numerous incidents of sorcery and in some cases physical harm that are reported in the factories, mines and other workplaces as people scramble and attempt to hold on to that scarce job opportunity. Churches have been able to provide support and protection to people arriving in the cities and urban areas from the more tranquil and peaceful rural areas. The bewitched often speak of bringing up from within their bodies and stomachs odd and frightening small creatures that were induced through sorcery and the African churches having had the power to rid them of such evil. The strength or success of these churches is also influenced in a significant way by their understanding of the cultural and language dynamics of their members, their African-ness if you wish.

The use of blessed water plays a very important role in the lives of the people that attend the African initiated churches. It could be water that prophets have prayed for or seawater that is said to offer healing and good health to many members of these churches. 5 and 2 litre containers play a pivotal role in the carrying and the keeping of this special water. Household members would opt to purchase the 2 litre Coca Cola or the 5 litre branded juice to ensure that when the contents have been finished, the container is used to carry and keep the water. These containers are often kept even after the original contents have been consumed. There are entrepreneurs that would visit refuse fills and bins looking for these empty containers, to clean and sell to those that might need them to carry water form the churches or the sea. Tea is an important product for the use by members of the ZCC. It said that Unilever has a special relationship with the ZCC, as a supplier of the various types of tea. The tea supplied is blessed, re-branded and repackaged in the colours the church. 

Mutilation and the trading in human parts

The issues and the problems associated with muti killings, human body mutilations and the trading in human parts have baffled and created fear and concern in communities in the urban and rural areas of South Africa. In some communities people have been found bleeding with missing tongues, ears, lips and other body parts. It is a well known fact that some people masquerading and operating as Sangomas and traditional have ordered their patients to find human body parts so that these can be used as part of the healing or providing power and strength to the persons needing such supernatural intervention. There are reported cases of human body parts that have been found in the fridges of shopkeepers and other businesses in the urban and rural areas of South Africa. Keeping the right hand of a human being is said to result in more money and profit coming into a business.

The witches and sorcerers in black African communities

The concept and the alleged practice of witches and sorcerers have managed to divide communities and in many cases they have turned family members against one another. The understanding within communities is that witches do not mean well and their operations are that of causing harm, disability, derangement and even death to targeted people. It is virtually impossible to find consistency in the facts on how witches go about practicing their craft, except to find people making references to someone riding a broom, walking naked in the night, sprinkling evil water, possessing a tokloshe or baboon or black cat or an owl or a bat. There are witches who, with or without animal accomplices, unleash their inherent potency without conscious effort, and those who can switch it on and off at will. Sorcerers, on the other hand, generate this power externally for specific purposes, by collecting and mixing substances (‘medicines’) which they arm with incantation.¹² In the provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga communities are known to have uprooted certain members of the communities that have been accused of being witches or sorcerers and practically drove them out of their homes. There are homesteads that are known to be only suitable for witches and sorcerers. These are people that have been accused of not having been neighbourly and managed to disturb the harmony and peace in the communities that they previously lived with.

Most witches are women, as if their position in society alone disposes them towards witchcraft, whereas everyone has more or less equal access to harmful medicines. It appears too that in the west the accent was on the harm that men could do, while in the east there was a much greater fear of the mystical powers of women.¹³             

           

Notes

1.                      Haviland 2000. Anthropology (Ninth Edition).

2, 10.          Wikipedia encyclopedia.

3, 4.            Martin Prozensky and John de Grunchy 1995. Living Faiths in South  

                   Africa. Extracted from the chapter The African Independent Churches 

                   by Jim Kiernan.

5, 6, 9.        Martin Prozensky and John de Grunchy 1995. Living Faiths in South  

                   Africa. Extracted from the introduction by Martin Prozesky.

7.                Microsoft Encarta Premium Suite 2005. © 1993-2004

8.                Bridging World History 1997 – 2005. Annenberg Media.

10, 11.        From the ANC website. An article written by Jeremy Seekings and 

                   reviewed by Jeremy Cronin 2002.

12, 13.        Martin Prozensky and John de Grunchy 1995. Living Faiths in South  

                   Africa. Extracted from the chapter African Traditional Religions in 

                   South Africa by Jim Kiernan.